Section 1.1: Early Philosophical Insights

Aristotle proposed that our understanding of the world relies on a process he termed abstraction. This knowledge acquisition sequence includes physical impressions, sensations, perceptions, and ultimately apperception—the integration of new knowledge into our existing frameworks. Concepts emerge as mental representations derived from tangible objects.

Individuals abstract certain characteristics from their surroundings. Much of Aristotle's cognitive theories emphasized vision, as many examples of abstraction relate to mental imagery. For example, while the eye itself isn't altered by physical impressions, aspects such as brightness and color significantly shape our perception. After sensing and perceiving an object, we amalgamate these signals into a coherent idea. Our true understanding of the object emerges from how different characteristics, like color and brightness, coalesce into a mental representation.

To summarize, we sense visible forms, transforming them into more comprehensible ideas. Alone, the interplay of colors and light lacks significance. The deeper we delve into abstraction, the closer we come to understanding an object—but this also leads us further from certainty. Ultimately, we can only be certain of what we perceive, allowing us to comprehend the world through external knowledge.

A theological challenge to abstraction arose, suggesting that if a perfect creator exists, all external objects are flawless. If our mental images are reflections of an imperfect perception, how can we claim to understand this perfect creation? If everyone interprets the world differently, our mental constructs cannot be universally valid.

This method of knowledge acquisition incorporates intuition—a rationalist viewpoint. According to Aristotle, we can comprehend the external world merely through our sensory experiences. Recognizing true aspects of reality allows us to glean insights through rational interpretation.

Section 1.2: The Rationalism vs. Empiricism Debate

In the 17th century, French philosopher René Descartes famously declared, "I think, therefore I am." This statement represented the only certainty he could ascertain. With advancements in psychology revealing biases and disorders, this assertion may no longer hold.

Descartes framed our reality as a spatial dimension comprised of mathematical entities and processes. Light and color were seen as interpretations rather than fundamental particles. This perspective complicates the reconciliation of our internal perceptions with external reality.

Descartes stands as a prominent rationalist, but he was not alone in his views. Rationalism operates on several assumptions:

1. Certain aspects of the world are intuitively understandable.
2. Knowledge can be deduced from what is not intuitively known.
3. We derive truths about subjects through rational thought.
4. Some ideas are inherent and not acquired through experience.

Some rationalists argue that knowledge gained via intuition and deduction surpasses what can be learned through experience. Various philosophers have interpreted these principles, resulting in distinct forms of rationalist thought, often intertwined with theological concepts.

In contrast, empiricists emerged as a rival school of thought, positing that no innate knowledge exists; rather, all understanding stems from sensory experiences. Consequently, no concepts are inherently known.

John Locke, a 17th-century philosopher, championed empiricist views on knowledge origins. All thoughts and ideas originate from either external sensations or subsequent mental processes. When our minds engage in perception, physical sensations evolve into new knowledge representations. Unlike rationalism, empiricism denies the existence of innate ideas.

Relying solely on rationalism introduces risks of bias and misinterpretation of sensory information. Rationalist approaches might overlook the mechanisms behind counterintuitive phenomena. Conversely, meticulous measurement and observation lead to a more objective understanding of the external world.

During this period, astronomical advancements spurred the adoption of empiricism through the scientific method. This journey of scientific progress included the development of gravitational models to explain our solar system, with Newtonian physics later flourishing as a means to explore our external environment.

A Note on Causality

Early microbiologists devised methods to ascertain whether specific microbial agents cause disease. Robert Koch, a 19th-century microbiologist, created postulates to help identify microbial causes of illness:

1. The microbe must be found in individuals with a specific disease.
2. The microbe can be isolated and cultured from this individual.
3. Introducing the microbe to a healthy host should reproduce the same disease.
4. The microbe can be re-isolated from the newly affected individual, showing it is identical to the original.

These postulates have guided research into various infectious diseases and have been adapted across different fields. However, as our understanding of health and disease evolves, a more flexible interpretation of these postulates is necessary.

While a specific pathogen may cause illness, some are opportunistic, affecting only immunocompromised individuals. Additionally, many microorganisms are challenging to culture in laboratory settings. A microbe may cause a particular disease, but not always—other physiological conditions might be required to trigger the illness.

Causality is a complex puzzle requiring various pieces. Some researchers suggest a focus on proportionality, aiming to clarify how much of a disease can be attributed to a given factor.

This exploration offers a glimpse into the historical evolution of our understanding and synthesis of knowledge. Throughout centuries of diverse cultures and philosophies, it is intriguing to witness how our framework for comprehending and evaluating knowledge has transformed.

This video, "PHILOSOPHY - Epistemology: Introduction to Theory of Knowledge [HD] - YouTube," provides an insightful introduction to the theory of knowledge, exploring how we understand and acquire knowledge through philosophical lenses.

The second video, "What is Philosophy?: Crash Course Philosophy #1 - YouTube," offers a comprehensive overview of philosophy, setting the stage for deeper discussions on knowledge and understanding.